One of the aspects of ancient Greece that I think is the most interesting was its military. Even reading the history of Greek military prowess makes it easy to understand why they inspired so many myths, stories and epics. So, I’ll cover those ancient Greek soldiers and their weapons and armour.
The ancient Greek military seems to fascinate everyone. Let’s be honest, for most of us, it started with the film 300.
Whatever the case, I will mainly cover the post-Bronze Age Greek military. To learn about the Mycenaeans, look at the Mycenaean Warriors of Bronze Age Greece. There, I have another post going into the weapons and armour of the earlier Bronze Age Greek people.
But even if your interest in ancient Greece stems from its gifts to humanity in the form of philosophy, maths or technology, you might eventually have an interest in the Greek military that allowed the Hellenistic culture to flourish.
This flourish was partly thanks to a new type of soldier that emerged after the Bronze Age (1100 BC in Greece). The hoplite. They became the backbone of the Greek military world.
Ancient Greek Hoplites
The Hoplites would impact the Mediterranean world so much that they were often hired as mercenaries by various Greek and non-Greek peoples.
According to Herodotus, Psamtik I of Egypt (664 BC-610 BC) hired Greek mercenaries.
Herodotus, The Histories:
“But after a short time, Ionians and Carians, voyaging for plunder, were forced to put in on the coast of Egypt where they disembarked in their armour of bronze. And an Egyptian came into the marsh country and brought news to Psammetichus (for he had never before seen armoured men) that men of bronze had come from the sea and were foraging in the plain. Psammetichus saw in this the fulfilment of the oracle. He made friends with the Ionians and Carians and promised them great rewards if they would join him and, having won them over, deposed the eleven kings with these allies and those Egyptians who volunteered.”
The Peloponnesian War saw a massive displacement of Greeks who would turn warfare into a fat paycheck.
Plato, Republic, 575:
“Some men go forth into exile and serve some tyrant elsewhere as bodyguards or become mercenaries in any war.”
One of the main reasons for the effectiveness of the ancient Greek hoplite was their weapons, armour and training. Rather than fighting individually for glory like their Mycenaeans ancestors, hoplites would fight as a unit.
Hoplites would often have variations in armour. Each hoplite would buy their armour. This would result in hoplites having different armour and with different materials. Peasant hoplites could only afford a spear, shield and maybe a helmet.
Ancient Greek Armour
But what did the ancient Greek weapons and armour look like?
Bronze or Iron Bell Cuirass And Muscle Cuirass
A popular type of cuirass in archaic Greece was the bell cuirass.
The name bell cuirass came from the shape of the armour, with the bottom part of the armour flaring out, giving it a bell shape. Additionally, It was tight-fitting and well-made, making it an excellent piece of armour.
And contrary to popular belief, it did not restrict the wearer’s movement.
The muscle cuirass was another type of armour popular during the archaic period.
But while it was visually striking, the design was no more practical than the bell cuirass. And it was not as common as the bell cuirass.
Although Iron armour was around during the Iron Age, bronze was still the typical metal for constructing armour.
Linothorax Armour
The linothorax armour became very popular by the Classical Period.
The linothorax is broken down into three connected sections:
- The yoke was the shoulder area.
- The tube that covered the torso.
- The pteruges covered the waist and shoulders of the wearer.
The name suggests it was made with linen. However, nobody is sure, with theories saying it was made with leather or a combination of leather, linen and different metals. A hoplite might incorporate scale armour into the for additional protection.
Nobody is even sure about its construction. Most likely, each hoplite would create his linothorax with the materials and methods he preferred and could afford.
Unfortunately, there are only a few surviving examples of linothorax.
Odrysian armour
One example is the Odrysian armour in Bulgaria.
This armour has a leather outside, but interestingly, small metal scales are on the inside.
Another example is the Cuirass of Philip II of Macedon. The preservation of that armour is excellent.
Unfortunately, I cannot find an image that I am sure I can use without breaching copyright laws, so click on this link. In that example, the body of the armour is made of Iron.
Attic Red-Figure vase showing hoplite. The vase dates to the 5th century BC. CC BY 4.0 ArchaiOptix
But some burials, like in Vergina, show the remains from the metal parts attached to the linothorax while the rest of the armour has disintegrated.
So, there is evidence of linothorax being made with organic materials.
More evidence of organic armour is in surviving pieces made with tightly woven twine linen. These remnants of twine linen are found in Etruscan tombs.
Etruscans, for context, mostly used ancient Greek weapons and armour, so studying them also helps understand ancient Greek weapons and armour.
I want to stress again that the Greek hoplites never had a strict uniform, so each hoplite would probably have his linothorax made in the manner and with materials that he would like or could afford.
Pteruges
Pteruges are leather strips that attach to the armour around the shoulder, hip, or thigh regions.
Although the leather or fabric straps would not provide much protection unless the Pteruges overlap, they might provide more protection.
They would allow for some protection of the shoulder, hip, and thigh regions without restricting movement.
This image shows Alexander the Great wearing Pteruges around his shoulders and hip regions. It could also serve a decorative purpose.
Greaves
Greaves are another type of armour common throughout the Mediterranean world. The Greek hoplite was just another type of warrior that utilised the greave.
The greave’s main function was to protect the shins.
Another advantage of the greave was that you could shorten the shield so that the greaves would cover your shins rather than the shield. Thus, you could make the shield smaller and lighter.
The importance of greaves was spotted as early as the Bronze Age, as the Mycenaean warriors are depicted wearing greaves.
The hoplite tactics, weapons and armour would spread to the Italian peninsula, especially with the Greek colonies in the south of Italy.
Ancient Greek Helmets
Hoplite helmets were once again either made with bronze or iron. I don’t think I have to tell you the function of helmets, so instead, I will talk more about the various designs and evolutions of the Helmet.
During the archaic period, the Kegel-Illyrian Helmet and the Corinthian-type helmets were the most popular.
Kegel Helmet
The Kegel helmet was popular during the archaic period from around the 8th to the 7th century BC. Although, it was most likely an evolution of an earlier Bronze Age Greek helmet.
Its construction involved several pieces put together through a labour-intensive process.
The main problem with the Kelgel helmet was that it was put together with several pieces. The result was that it would shatter apart from a heavy blow.
This problem called for an updated version that is called the Illyrian-type helmet.
Illyrian-Type Helmet
The Illyrian Helmet, or the Illyrian type helmet, was an open-face helmet most popular in the 8th and 7th centuries BC. It was now cast from one piece of bronze, addressing the helmet-shattering problem when struck.
Although the organic decoration of the Illyrian Helmet is now decomposed, most would have had a crest or plums on them for decoration.
The Illyrian-type helmet would go through several minor changes. These little changes in helmet design are designated as type one to type five. These minor changes would mainly change aspects such as cutouts near the side for better hearing. The later models also offered better neck protection. However, the look of the Helmet would, for the most part, stay the same.
However, the Illyrian Helmet would fall out of use, and its replacement became the Corinthian-style helmet.
Corinthian Helmet
The Corinthian-style helmet went through similar changes to improve protection and practicality.
The Corinthian Helmet came into existence around the 8th century BC. It offered excellent protection, yet it still allowed for great visibility and was simple enough to make.
The first iteration of the Corinthian Helmet, like the Kegel helmet, was put together with separate pieces, but a revised version was finally made with one piece.
Throughout its history, there have been several modifications of the Corinthian Helmet, such as:
- There were small cutouts for hearing. These cutouts became bigger in later models.
- The early Corinthian helmets had a more box-like simple shape, while the later models were slimmer and more ergonomic.
- The introduction of a cranial ridge improved its strength.
- Later, Corinthian helmets became more closed, while early models were more open.
Better comfort, like padding sewn into the Helmet, or in later models, the padding was glued into the Helmet. A cranial ridge was added for more strength. Also, an indentation was added to separate the chin and necklines. Some models had longer cheek guards. Overall, the Corinthian Helmet had a more closed appearance.
The last model of the Corinthian Helmet added a cutout for better hearing and a bit more neck protection at the back.
Chalcidian Helmet
The Corinthian Helmet would soon evolve into the Chalcidian Helmet.
The Chalcidian-type helmet was a bronze helmet popular during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. It was also widespread around the Greek colonial areas of southern Italy.
It is called the Chalcidian Helmet because it is thought to originate from the Eboean city of Chalcis. But no one is even sure that is where it originates.
Whatever the case, it appears to be a further development of the Corinthian Helmet. And It provided good protection while allowing for better vision.
Later models would look very similar but with the addition of hinged cheekpieces.
Attic Helmet
The Attic Helmet was famous in the Hellenistic period and became a favourite in the Italian world. It took inspiration from the Chlcidian helmet but lacks the nose guard.
Boeotian Helmet
The Boeotian Helmet originated in the 5th century BC. Its primary use was for cavalry, as the author Xenophon says:
“the Boeotian type of Helmet. This protects all the parts above the cuirass most and allows free vision.”
As the name suggests, it first popped up in the region of Boeotia but quickly spread across the Mediterranean.
Phrygian Helmet
The Phrygian Helmet emerging in Greece dates to the 5th century BC.
The Phrygian Helmet was popular with the Macedonian cavalry. It began to replace the Corinthian Helmet from the 5th century BC onward.
I could keep writing about helmets, but there are too many, which would get boring. But these are the main ones.
Leave a comment if you want to see a post about ancient Greek helmets.
Ancient Greek Aspis
The ancient Greek shield or aspis was a large shield that protected the user by covering from the neck down to the shins.
Unfortunately, there is only one surviving aspis, which is located in the Vatican.
It is a common mistake to call the Greek shield a hoplon. The hoplon refers instead to the whole Greek panoply.
The aspis was made with several layers of wood with a thin sheet of bronze on its face. It had a bronze boss in the centre for bashing and additional strength. Strangely, the grip was on the edge of the shield. A leather strap then fastened itself on the forearm. This gave good mobility to the hoplite using this shield.
Decorations and emblems were typical for a hoplite shield. For example, the Greek letter equivalent to the letter L decorated the shields of Spartans. Athenians had multiple decorations on their shields. However, the Athenians would later abandon this tradition because of confusion between friend and foe.
Boeotian Shield
The Boeotian shield, like the aspis, has an oval shape. However, it had cutouts on each side of the shield, much like a violin.
The cutout sides also mean you stab and thrust from the shield’s centre instead of reaching around or over to strike.
Macedonian Phalangite/Greek Pelta
The Macedonian phalange shield, or the Telamon shield, was like the apsis regarding its construction.
However, it was smaller and carried on the shoulder so the soldiers could carry the massive spears known as the sarissa.
The pelta was basically the same as the phalangite.
Ancient Greek Weapons
We have spoken about Greek armour, but as the title suggests (ancient Greek weapons and armour), we will also talk about ancient Greek weapons.
Spear (Dory)
The universal weapon of the ancient world was the spear, which was common in ancient Greece.
The dory was the primary weapon of the Hoplite. Homer first mentioned the word dory, meaning “wood” and “spear”.
There are a few details about the dory:
- The dory was about 6ft to 9 ft.
- The dory’s main material was usually cornel or ash wood.
- The spearhead was a leaf-shaped iron spearhead.
- The back of the spear had an iron spike as a counterbalance. It could function as something to stab the opponent if the head of the spear broke off in battle. Also could stab anyone on the ground.
- The dory had a case for protection from environmental obstacles.
Spear (Xyston)
The Xyston spear was a long spear measuring from 11 to 14 ft long.
The main body of the spear was cornel wood, which was a very strong, dense wood, allowing the Hellenistic cavalry to strike hard and from a distance.
The spearhead was an iron or sometimes bronze leaf-shaped triangular tip excellent for piercing and thrusting.
You can see the mosaic of Alexander the Great on the Alexander Mosaic further above in the section about pteruges using the Xyston spear.
Spear (Sarissa)
The sarissa was a long (13-22 ft) iron leaf-shaped spear Philip II of Macedon introduced to his troops.
The end of the spear had a spike to anchor into the ground to give extra support to stop charges from both infantry and cavalry.
It replaced the dory and was the primary weapon of the legendary Macedonian phalanx. It was this formation that ultimately beat the traditional hoplite-style warfare.
Sword (Xiphos)
The Greeks used the straight, double-edged shortsword for close combat. When the spears had been thrown or broken, the xiphos would be the secondary weapon.
Only measuring 40-60 cm, the short sword is often said to date back to the Bronze Age.
These short swords are not exclusive to Greece and were especially common in the Celtic La Tene culture.
Sword (Kopis)
According to Xenophon:
“I recommend a kopis rather than a Xiphos because, from the height of a horse’s back, the cut of a machaira will serve you better than the thrust of a Xiphos.”
The makhaira was a single-edged blade that was perfect for slashing. This might be why Xenophon preferred it to the Xiphos, as cavalry will use a slashing motion more than a thrusting one.
Sword (Makhaira)
The makhaira is much the same as the kopis in that it is mainly a slashing sword. A makhaira can also be a word that can describe a domestic knife or any knife, for that matter.
Other Weapons
The ancient Greeks also used bows, slingers, and javelins. But most of these other weapons were not typical of hoplites. The bow was a cowardly weapon, according to the ancient Greeks.
Peltest, the light infantry of the Greek army, would carry slings and javelins. Usually coming from Thrace but could also come from Greece and Paeonia.
I could do a whole post on the types of units in the ancient Greek world.
I hope you have all enjoyed this post about ancient Greek weapons and armour. And please let me know if I left out any other ancient Greek weapons or pieces of armour.
