When some Celtic warriors were invited to dine with Alexander the Great, he asked them what they feared the most.
“Alexander had hoped that they feared him because of his great power more than all other things, but upon asking them their greatest fear, they replied: “That the sky might fall on us“.
(Arrian, Discourses of Epictetus § 4).
The Celtic warriors, the savage, unclean bands of wild men, left nothing but a path of fatherless sons and smouldering cities, locusts of civilisation, striping bare man’s outstanding achievements. At least, this is what is often the image.
While I will talk about Celtic culture later, I want to discuss the Celtic warriors. Who were they? What weapons, armour, and tactics did they use? And more importantly, what misconceptions do we have about them?
But firstly, we must ask the question…
Who Were The Celts?
The Celtic people were a diverse Indo-European people that arguably began to emerge around 1200 BC with the Hallstatt culture. They expanded and started to inhabit parts of Eastern Europe, Central Europe, Spain, Portugal and Turkey. There were too many tribes to list, but they all shared commonalities in culture and language, although they also varied slightly. The most well-known to the Romans were the Gauls in modern France and parts of Germany, the Galicians in Turkey and the many tribes in Britain like the Silures.
But even the Gauls and Galatians had sub-tribes.
These groups, however, were not one nation and often fought with each other. Many groups of celts travelled to different lands like, for instance, the Silures mentioned above.
Tacitus biography of Agricola:
“The dark complexion of the Silures, their usually curly hair, and the fact that Spain is the opposite shore to them are evidence that Iberians of a former date crossed over and occupied these parts.”
We must understand that the Romans and Greeks differed significantly from the Celts. The Greeks and Romans saw their great civilisations as man-made orders stopping the chaos of nature. They saw nature as a necessary evil, and their laws, cities and other aspects of man-made order kept back nature’s unpredictable and disordered grip over the world. They saw the Celts as almost a force of nature, a people not governed by law, with no great imposing cities and entirely without any semblance of order.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus:
“Now the barbarians’ manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in military science.”
Book XIV
Now that we understand a bit about Celts and how Rome and Greece saw them let us delve into the Celtic warrior.
Celtic Arms And Armour
No Celtic tribe had a standardised army. This means that all Celtic warriors had utterly different equipment from each other. Most would wear baggy trousers and a top with a sword and shield or sometimes a spear. Slingshots, bows, and arrows were also common among them. However, contrary to what most people think, they also had body armour such as bronze or leather cuirasses and chain mail. But rather than listing what equipment they had, I will offer what the Romans and Greeks said.
Roman And Greek Authors Describe Celts
“The king of the Gauls with his armour, that was adorned with gold and silver and various colours, shining like lightning. These arms seemed to Marcellus, while he viewed the enemy’s army drawn up in battalia, to be the best and fairest, and thinking them to be those he had vowed to Jupiter, he instantly ran upon the king, and pierced through his breastplate with his lance.“
Plutarch, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Section 7
“On their heads, they put bronze helmets which have large embossed figures standing out from them and give an appearance of great size to those who wear them; for in some cases horns are attached to the helmet to form a single piece, in other cases images of the fore-parts of birds or four-footed animals.“
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Book 5, Chapter 30
“Some of them have iron cuirasses, chain-wrought, but others are satisfied with the armour that nature has given them and go into battle naked.“
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Book 5, Chapter 30
“On their heads, they put bronze helmets which have large embossed figures standing out from them and give an appearance of great size to those who wear them; for in some cases horns are attached to the helmet so as to form a single piece, in other cases images of the fore-parts of birds or four-footed animals.“
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Book 5, Chapter 30
The total force of Antiochus […] consisting of the mail-clad Galatians
Appian, The Syrian Wars 7, Chapter 6, Section 32
In that quote from Appian, it seems that most of the Galicians had armour.
Not All That Great?
While the Celtic people did have armour, we must remember that most wore baggy trousers, a top, a cloak, a spear and shield, or a sword and shield. And most could not afford armour.
“The Gauls were worse armed than the Greeks, having no other defensive armour than their national shields.”
Pausanias, Description of Greece – Phocis and Ozolian Locri Chapter 21, Section 2
There is also evidence of padded armour like the Greek linothorax.
Although some Roman writers scoffed at Celtic weapon making as apparently some bent, this is probably because the Celtic people needed more men. They mass-produced weapons, and the quality dropped. But again, this would vary from tribe to tribe.
Polybius Histories book 2:
“I have mentioned before that they could only give one downward cut with any effect, but that after this, the edges got so turned and the blade so bent that unless they had time to straighten them with their foot against the ground, they could not deliver a second blow.”
Some have also suggested that the Greeks misunderstood a ritual of sword-bending, which may have served to “decommission” the weapon.
After a closer look at Celtic swords from archaeologists like Radomir Pleiner, they say this claim has been exaggerated.
No Pretty Great
Ironically, despite the Romans’ apparent disdain towards the Celts, they took a lot of influence from them regarding military equipment.
When fighting the Celts, the Romans were introduced to chain mail, which they adopted quickly afterwards.
The Montefortino, Coolus, and imperial Galicia helmet designs that the Romans wore were all based on Celtic helmets. However, they did add some improvements, such as sloped neck guards, projecting ear guards, brass trims, and decorative bosses,
The Roman swords (gladius) were taken from Celtiberian designs.
“The Celtiberians excel the rest of the world in constructing their swords; for their point is strong and serviceable, they can deliver a cut with both edges. Wherefore the Romans abandoned their traditional swords after the Hannibalian War and adopted those of the Iberians.”
Polybius in Book twenty-two:
So, despite the Romans’ distaste for Celts, they occasionally admit they aren’t all that bad.
In short, the Celtic people used a variety of armour types. Ranging from chain mail, bronze cuirasses, and organic padded armour.
The Naked Celtic Warriors
Another idea that is floating around is that Celts fought naked. And this is partly true. However, only a minority of tribes fought naked, like the Gaesatae.
Polybius Histories:
“The Insubres and Boii wore their trousers and light cloaks, but the Gaesatae had discarded these garments owing to their proud confidence in themselves and stood naked, with nothing but their arms, in front of the whole army, thinking that thus they would be more efficient, as some of the ground was overgrown with brambles which would catch in their clothes and impede the use of their weapons.”
Diodorus Siculus is also talking about the Gaesatae when he says:
“Some individuals amount the Celts are satisfied with the armour that nature has given them.”
So, while this point is true, ancient authors are mainly talking about only a few tribes. The practice of fighting naked also quickly fell out of fashion when the vets were introduced to the Romans.
Painted Celtic Warriors
On another note, I thought I would mention another famous image in our heads—blue war paint.
Firstly, we are unsure if it was tattoos or just paint.
“All the Britons, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which produces a blue colour and makes their appearance in battle more terrible. They wear long hair and shave every part of the body save the head and the upper lip.”
Julius Caesar, in Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Book V
However, Pliny (Natural History; XXII, 2) says:
“In Gaul, there is a plant like the plantain, called glastum [woad]; with it, the wives of the Britons, and their daughters-in-law, stain all the body and at certain religious ceremonies march along naked, with a colour resembling that of Ethiopians.”
In other words, some Gauls would paint themselves in a dark colour for ceremonial reasons. Not all Celts painted themselves just for war.
However, the blue war paint worn for battle seems restricted to the Britons, not the continental Celts.
Celtic Warriors and Their Tactics
Celtic tactics changed and evolved throughout the Roman invasion and occupation. And the tactics varied with different tribes.
Much of the tactics used by the Celtics were simple. Start with a war chant accompanied by horns, and work your warriors into a frenzy and charge. This often worked as the opposing army would be terrified and routed easily.
“The manner of fighting, largely that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in military science. Thus, at one moment, they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of wild boars, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks. Again, they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all.”
However, later on, the Celts began to evolve. Caesar witnessed the Helvetii tribe form a phalanx formation.
“The Helvetii having followed with all their wagons, collected their baggage into one place: they themselves, after having repulsed our cavalry and formed a phalanx, advanced up to our front line in very close order.”
Caesar De Bello Gallica, Book 1, XXIV
At the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, the Celts used hit-and-run guerrilla tactics.
There are plenty of examples where ambushes and traps were set for the Romans. So, the idea that they just charged in with no thought may have been the case in the early days of the Celtic people, but this changed very quickly.
Celtic Cavalry
Many Roman and Greek authors agree that the Gallic (Celtic) people were incredible cavalry.
“The whole race, which is now called both “Gallic” and “Galatic”, is war-mad […] they are better as cavalry than as infantry, and the best cavalry force the Romans have comes from these people.“
Strabo, Geography book 4, Chapter 4, Section 2
Like the rest of the world, the Celtic warriors on the continent started to abandon the chariot in favour of the cavalry.
Celts Warriors in Britain
I want to mention the most recognisable Celts of all. The Celts in Britain were isolated in terms of warfare. When the Romans landed, they found that the Celts there fought more like earlier Celts. They are excellent people to study to understand early Celtic warfare because they never needed to change their tactics to face the threat of Rome.
They still used chariots. It was such a shock that the Romans did not know how to deal with them.
“In chariot fighting, the Britons begin by driving all over the field hurling javelins, and generally, the terror inspired by the horses and the noise of the wheels is sufficient to throw their opponents’ ranks into disorder. Then, after making their way between the squadrons of their own cavalry, they jump down from the chariot and engage on foot. In the meantime, their charioteers retire a short distance from the battle and place the chariots in such a position that their masters, if hard pressed by numbers, have an easy means of retreating to their own lines.
Thus, they combine the mobility of cavalry with the staying power of infantry. By daily training and practice, they attain such proficiency that even on a steep incline, they can control the horses at full gallop and check and turn them in a moment. They can run along the chariot pole, stand on the yoke, and get back into the chariot as quickly as lightning.:
– Julius Caesar, Gallic War IV
Summary
Unfortunately, the Celts did not write anything down. Instead, we rely on Roman and Greek authors. Straight away, bias covers our view of the Celts. We have to take what we read with a grain of salt. Thankfully, archaeology helps paint a clearer picture. I will not deny that the Mediterranean civilisations are more impressive. However, there is an air of mystery around these people, most likely because they differ from our civilisations.
And yet, despite massive turnovers from Rome and Germanic and Scandinavian invasions, the introduction of a new strange religion from the levant Celtic culture still survives today.
If you liked our dive into the Celtic warriors, I am sure you will enjoy our post on the Bronze Age Greek warriors.
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To know more about Celtic warfare, check out the book Celtic Warfare by Gioal Canestrelli.
